As Russia’s head of state, the president is empowered to appoint the chairman of the government (prime minister), key judges, and cabinet members. A hereditary monarch, called the tsar, ruled the people without any constitutional constraints. The Government issued special bonds to the landowners for the land that they had lost, and collected a special tax from the peasants, called redemption payments, at a rate of 5% of the total cost of allotted land yearly. [193][194], In 1938 Germany annexed Austria and, together with major Western European powers, signed the Munich Agreement following which Germany, Hungary and Poland divided parts of Czechoslovakia between themselves. The reign of Peter I (the Great; 1689–1725), The reign of Catherine II (the Great; 1762–96), Government administration under Catherine, Education and social change in the 18th century, The Civil War and War Communism (1918–21), The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost, Ethnic relations and Russia’s “near-abroad”, Consolidation of power, Syria, and campaign against the West. Regardless of how it came to be, the Rurik Dynasty was a legitimate Russian government system. German plans for further eastward expansion, as well as the lack of resolve from Western powers to oppose it, became more apparent. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Rurik and his two brothers allegedly established themselves in the region, creating the first Russian state. It consists of the Federation Council (an upper house comprising appointed representatives from each of Russia’s administrative divisions) and the State Duma (a 450-member popularly elected lower house). [19] They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire,[20] and waged a series of successful wars against the Arab Caliphates. Vladimir Putin was re-elected for a fourth presidential term. The expectation proved futile. Through the eleventh, twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, Kiev carried out military battles and engaged in trade activities, extending their sphere of influence south to the Baltic Sea. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War, came to dominate the international stage in the postwar period. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself as the Russian Federation and became one of the several successors to the Soviet Union. By the 1830s, Russia had conquered all Persian territories and major Ottoman territories in the Caucasus. The vast majority of the land was unoccupied, and travel was slow. Gradually, the Russian ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar. The Mongol state established during this time came to be known as the Golden Horde, and lasted until the end of the fifteenth century. Peter reformed the Russian army and created the Russian navy. An abortive coup in August 1991 by hard-liners opposed to Gorbachev’s reforms led to the collapse of most Soviet government organizations, the abolition of the Communist Party’s leading role in government, and the dissolution of the party itself. [29] This was because Church Slavonic was used directly in liturgy instead.[39]. [113], Tsar Nicholas I (reigned 1825–1855) lavished attention on his very large army; with a population of 60–70 million people, the army included a million men. "Soviet Studies and Social History" in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds. In the meantime negotiations with Finland over a Soviet-proposed land swap that would redraw the Soviet-Finnish border further away from Leningrad failed, and in December 1939 the USSR invaded Finland, beginning a campaign known as the Winter War (1939–40). By the end of the 1640s, the Russians reached the Pacific Ocean, the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev, opened the strait between Asia and America. In the 1914 campaign, Russian forces defeated Austro-Hungarian forces in the Battle of Galicia. The world's first nuclear power plant was established in 1954 in Obninsk, and the Baikal Amur Mainline was built. Some local authorities, particularly in urban centres, exercise significant power and are responsible for taxation and the licensing of businesses. The freed peasants had to buy land, allotted to them, from the landowners with the state assistance. She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. The Sudebnik was adopted, the first set of laws since the 11th century. Yet, less than half a century later, the strains of military expeditions produced another revolt in Astrakhan, ultimately subdued. By the 11th century, particularly during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Kievan Rus' displayed an economy and achievements in architecture and literature superior to those that then existed in the western part of the continent.
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